Indirect Indicators

Below are presented a series of indirect indicators for the assessment of development trends and their possible consequences for changes in livestock environment interactions.

Changes in the prevalence of livestock production systems already indicate that the impact of livestock production on the environment is changing. Changes within systems can also indicate in increase of pressure of livestock on the environment or an increase in opportunities to enhance the positive interactions.

Indicator For:

Production Systems Change in Production Objectives Change in herd composition Pasture Management Livestock Management Manure Management Farm Management | General Indicators Feed Resource base and Livestock management Pasture Quality Pasture quality and availability Farm Economics Household Economics Household Economics

Production systems | General
• (former) nomads cultivating crops in marginal areas | • no longer enough livestock to live from • crop cultivation as means to reduce sales of livestock
• communal grazing | • pastures available • limited community control over communal areas
• crop residues harvested | • high pressure on communal grazing areas • feeding of poor quality feed • feeding strategies
• cut and carry | • high pressure on communal grazing areas • strict local rules and regulations • small herds per household (labour intensive)
• feed from farm | • shortage of communal feed resources • poor access to communal feed resources • poor quality communal feed resources • livestock worth the investment (land, trees)
• external feed | • improved infrastructure • markets for input and produce • presence of services (extension, veterinary services, banks)

Change in production objectives | Feed resource base and livestock management
• milk to reproduction | • Decrease in density of good quality grass • Sedentarisation of nomads • Decrease in mobility to look for good quality grass • Increased competition on remaining pastures of good quality
• reproduction to growth | • Formation of large herds, looked after by herdsmen • Mobility no longer primarily in function of feed quality and availability • Prolonged grazing periods on pastures • Increased risks of overgrazing
• growth to maintenance | • Not enough feed and / or feed of poor quality. • Animals kept in these circumstances for draught services, security reasons as saving account. • Area is already overgrazed or resources are already used near to the maximum
• maintenance to manure | • Only poor feed resources available • Animals in poor condition, near death, convert poor feed resources in manure (fuel, building material, fertilizer)

Change in herd composition | Pasture quality
• cattle to sheep | • Overgrazing of perennial grasses • Decrease in density of good quality grass
• sheep to cattle | • Increase in availability of bulky feed for ruminants (crop residues)
• grazers to browsers | • Decrease in grass cover
• NETTO out placement of animals in herds outside location | • Locally not enough feed (on farm, near village), increased risk of overgrazing
Change in livestock numbers | Pasture quality and livestock management / ownership
• Cattle stagnant goats increasing | • Overgrazing available pastures • Browse still available
Stronger decrease in cattle / per person than in small ruminants / person | • Increase in poverty amongst farming households • Decrease in access by farming households to pastures for cattle • Increase in skewed distribution of cattle over owners

Pasture management | Pasture quality and availability
• Decrease in burning | • Overgrazing. Not enough pastures and on these pastures not enough grass left for an effective bush fire.
• Increase in tree lobbing | • Decrease in availability of feed / good quality feed
• Transformation of forest in (sub) humid zone into pastures | • Lack of (access) to pastures in (semi-) arid zone. Acceptance of poor quality pastures and increased risks of animal diseases

Livestock management | Farm economics
• high bull calve mortality | • not economic to raise bull calves
• long calving interval | • milk more important than off-spring
• increase animal health problems | • sedentarisation of nomads • decrease in mobility • (prolonged) staying in infested areas (ticks, tse tse)
• seasonal weight losses accepted | • compensatory growth in following season
• from local breeds to cross or exotic breeds | • access to improved feed resources, services and markets
• urea treatment of straw | • lack of alternative feed of better quality than straw

Manure management | Household economics
• bio gas | • shortage of fuel wood, other alternatives too expensive
• manure as fuel | • shortage of fuel wood, other alternatives too expensive

Farm management | Household economics
• DAP for land preparation | • access to land for crop cultivation
• DAP replaced by hand tractors | • high intensification in crop production (irrigated agriculture) • production objective livestock changes from traction to growth and reproduction
• DAP replaced by large tractors | • extensive large scale crop production • disintegration crop - livestock production

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